Parasocial relationships
准社会关系
What is a parasocial relationship?
A parasocial relationship is the sense of connection someone feels with a famous person they have never met, a fictional character or an AI, as if they knew them, though the bond runs one way.[1][2] Horton and Wohl coined the term in 1956; Cambridge Dictionary made “parasocial” its 2025 word of the year.[2]
Viewer
Media figure
- Celebrity
- Streamer
- Fictional character
- AI
Related research: three levels of celebrity worship
Schematic. Celebrity worship is a research concept related to, but distinct from, parasocial relationships; the three levels come from McCutcheon et al. (2002).
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Parasocial relationship · As if you knew them Cambridge Dictionary defines parasocial as relating to a connection someone feels with a famous person they do not know, a character in a book, film or TV series, or an AI. A meta-analysis found parasocial relationships strongly correlated with factors that foster interpersonal bonds, such as perceived similarity, and with other forms of involvement such as identification and transportation, and a stronger predictor of media involvement than parasocial interaction.
Parasocial interaction · While watching Performers often address the camera directly, as if talking personally and privately, and adjust to the audience’s expected response; viewers answer as if taking part. Horton and Wohl called this conversational give-and-take parasocial interaction. A meta-analysis found it only moderately correlated with parasocial relationships, supporting a distinction between the two.
No way back · One-sided, performer-led Horton and Wohl describe the interaction as one-sided, controlled by the performer and unable to develop mutually. Viewers can choose among the relationships on offer but cannot create new ones, and if unsatisfied can only withdraw. They carry little obligation, effort or responsibility, and fantasy can fill in much of the rest.
The 1956 observation · “Intimacy at a distance” In their 1956 paper, subtitled “Observations on intimacy at a distance,” Horton and Wohl of the University of Chicago wrote that radio, television and film give audiences the illusion of a face-to-face relationship with performers, who are responded to much as people in one’s own circle. They called this seeming face-to-face relationship parasocial, differing from ordinary relationships in degree rather than kind.
An extension, not a substitute · A meta-analysis of 120 studies A common view is that parasocial relationships stand in for missing real ones. A 2020 meta-analysis of four decades of research (120 studies) found no significant link between social deficiencies and parasocial relationships, supporting the view that they extend social relationships rather than substitute for them.
2025 word of the year · From celebrities to chatbots Cambridge Dictionary chose “parasocial” as its 2025 word of the year, with a definition that includes AI. Its publisher said the year was marked by interest in one-sided relationships with celebrities, influencers and AI chatbots, with spikes in lookups on its website. Cambridge social psychologist Simone Schnall noted that people come to feel they know and can trust these figures, though the relationship is completely one-sided.
Personal pastime · Watching and reading Using the 17 items of their Celebrity Worship Scale, McCutcheon and colleagues describe three qualitatively different levels. The lowest is individual: watching and reading about a celebrity. The scale worked equally for actors, musicians, athletes and other celebrities, with no age or gender bias.
Social topic · Worship turns social The study starts from the idea that celebrity worship has pathological and nonpathological forms. At slightly higher levels, worship takes on a social character.
Intense involvement · Over-identification, compulsion, obsession The highest level mixes empathy with the celebrity’s successes and failures, over-identification, compulsive behavior and obsession with details of their life. The authors propose a model of absorption, which can lead to delusions of an actual relationship, and addiction, which drives the need for ever stronger involvement to feel connected.
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Key points
- Horton and Wohl saw that radio, television and film gave audiences the illusion of a face-to-face relationship with performers, one the performer controls and that cannot develop mutually.[1]
- They called the conversational give-and-take felt while watching parasocial interaction. A meta-analysis found it only moderately correlated with parasocial relationships, so the two are distinct.[1][3]
- These bonds are often assumed to replace real relationships. A meta-analysis of 120 studies found no significant link with social deficiencies, supporting a view of them as an extension instead.[3]
- Cambridge Dictionary’s definition includes AI, and its publisher reported wide interest in 2025 in one-sided bonds with celebrities, influencers and AI chatbots.[2]
An example
Every night Jay watches the same streamer. He knows the streamer’s catchphrases and cat’s name, and says “good night” back at the end. Jay knows the streamer has no idea who he is, and he still goes to work and meets friends. This is a typical parasocial bond: one-sided, but no substitute for real relationships.[3]
Misreadings and limits
Parasocial bonds are often read as a sign of loneliness or of something wrong. They are widespread,[2] and Horton and Wohl saw them as differing from ordinary relationships in degree, not kind.[1] The concern lies at the intense end: in celebrity worship research, the highest level involves over-identification, compulsive behavior and obsession with a celebrity’s life.[4]
Sources
- 1 Horton, D., & Wohl, R. R. (1956). Mass communication and para-social interaction: Observations on intimacy at a distance. Psychiatry, 19(3), 215–229. doi:10.1080/00332747.1956.11023049
- 2 University of Cambridge (2025). Cambridge Dictionary reveals Word of the Year 2025. University of Cambridge news (November 18, 2025), adapted from Cambridge University Press & Assessment. View source
- 3 Tukachinsky, R., Walter, N., & Saucier, C. J. (2020). Antecedents and effects of parasocial relationships: A meta-analysis. Journal of Communication, 70(6), 868–894. doi:10.1093/joc/jqaa034
- 4 McCutcheon, L. E., Lange, R., & Houran, J. (2002). Conceptualization and measurement of celebrity worship. British Journal of Psychology, 93(1), 67–87. doi:10.1348/000712602162454
Last checked against sources: October 28, 2026